Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Exam paper---read the requirement I send you carefully Essay - 3

Exam paper---read the requirement I send you carefully - Essay Example Due to increased competition in a perfect market, the bargaining power of the consumers is very high. The market trends are thus required to be followed by the companies in a market that is perfectly competitive. The price of products and services in a monopoly market is determined by the single player which also takes the government regulations into account. The products in a perfect market could not be differentiated as the products could replace each other. The products in a monopoly market could be differentiated and it is not possible to replace the products in a monopoly market. Response of a perfect market to changes in consumer demand A perfect market is a market that has the highest competition and is less concentrated. This means that the market is driven by a number of competitors which increases the level of competition for delivering products and services to the customers. The changes in the demand and its effects on the changes in price in a perfect market have been exp lained as follows. In a perfect market, the demand curve is perfectly elastic. This means that any further change in price will result in demand falling to zero (Mankiw, 2011, p.37). Thus a perfect market is represented by a horizontal demand line with the benchmark price remaining constant for the quantity demanded. ... Such an ideal condition is difficult to obtain under practical conditions. For a change in the consumer demand in a perfect market, the response of the market could be explained in the short term period as well as the long term period. In the short term period, a rise in the demand level of the products against the prevailing supply will increase the price of the products and services. The increase in demand over a short term period is represented by the green line over the dotted line. A rise in price of the products and services over the prevailing cost would provide the companies with economic profits (Hall and  Lieberman, 2007, p.108). The rise in the economic profits of the business would be supported by the revenues earned from the market. This is well supported by the economic theory of supply and demand and is explained by the graphical representation given below. â€Å"MC† and â€Å"ATC† are the marginal cost and the average respectively, â€Å"P† is t he price which exceeds the cost as a revenue driver. An example of the demand of coffee in a perfect market could be used to explain the market response. A rise in demand of coffee in the market against the prevailing supply would force the coffee firms to raise the prices which would provide them short term economic profits which are, however, not sustainable in the long run as the competition level would tend to bring down the prices very soon. The response of a perfect in the long run with the changes in demand level is explained by the graphical representation given below. With time, the number of firms in the market would increase as there in minimal barrier to entry and also in order to tap the market opportunity. Thus with the increase in supply, the demand line would

Monday, October 28, 2019

Commentary on my creative writing piece focusing on The Dubliners Essay Example for Free

Commentary on my creative writing piece focusing on The Dubliners Essay After completing my story, I thought I would say how the story that I had written related to the story The Dubliners. The story that I wrote, I related to the theme of paralysis and the risk of death, a vision of the future and also a little about money, which is used in The Dubliners. I chose this viewpoint on the story as I thought it would relate well to the background I was using. Especially the theme of death would work well, as death is a very common situation so it helped when I dramatised the theme. Also I decided to use the times of today, as I thought it would be more easier to relate to The Dubliners using a situation in a lower/ middle class background, but using a cultural difference. I also decided to use third person narrative, as I thought it would be clearer in third person. I did try to use first person, but I had a bit of difficulty in putting a point across, so I decided to use third person, as I found it much more flowing to do. I decided to start off with a line, which explained the background so the story would be easier to understand, as I used a different culture. If I had gone straight into a story, the story may have been hard to understand. I included a little introduction to the character and the backgrounds, so the reader would notice what culture I was trying to show and how I was trying to relate it to The Dubliners. I think the introduction to the character and the culture, is a very important thing in my story. This was only in the beginning, but when I used a little climax. I used a twist in the middle of my story, to make sure the reader would be more interested and engaged to read on. The method I used was an everyday experience, which seemed like a big thing. This helped me to use the theme of vision of the future, with the character knowing there would be more trouble. The ending I used both of the themes of death and vision of future. I think death was a very important in the whole story, which showed the theme of paralysis. I used the theme of vision of future, as the character had death on their mind through the whole story, and this helped to use the theme of death. I think I can relate this to The Dubliners, as the theme of paralysis and the theme of death and darkness is used very often. I chose to end the story in this way as it dramatises the themes in which that I used. Also I used description, with a stressful atmosphere used. I think this ending suits the culture in which I wrote the story about. As it is believed that shootings are made in this background a lot. This I thought would be the best way to end my story. I think I thought about my main character quite a lot, especially with the culture to take in account. Also, the use of the characters pride and making the character emotional about death and escape. This helped me to explain how the character was feeling. I think I used the character well in the situation, because the background and culture is like real life. I have read and researched situation like this and deaths are always happening. This is why it was important, that I made sure the character, language and the actions were correct. This in my opinion was the best thing to do was research a little about the background, also things such as drugs, typical backgrounds, and even clothing I researched so I made sure the situation was just like real life and not something in reality. I used the background and the subject matter as it all related to one thing. Especially the setting and atmosphere, which all related to death. I used the subject of stress in my story as well, the whole theme of stress, occurred to me as a good way in which to escape or a good way to look for escape. Stress can usually consist of anger and frustration, which is how it is related to The Dubliners. These emotions are shown within my story and also The Dubliners. The language I used in my story was descriptive and also gave good and relevant information, when was needed. As I used a different content of language, I had to explain what some words meant. Also I think my story would sound effective if it was to be read out loud, as the situation is real and can happen in life. Maybe in some cases people can relate to this kind of story, as it can also send a message across about gangs, firearms, drugs, and also maybe drinking. After writing this story I think that this has many themes which could be related to the story, The Dubliners. As you can see I have included themes such as death, escape, darkness and also vision for the future. I think these themes helped me to relate the story with the best use, as cultural I was not sure on which to write a story about, that is why I used a different culture, in which I found more interesting to write about.

Saturday, October 26, 2019

On Writing in America: The Politics, Criticism, and Fiction of William Dean Howells :: Essays Papers

On Writing in America: The Politics, Criticism, and Fiction of William Dean Howells Upon hearing of an event which has become known as "The Haymarket Incident," a violent outbreak that involved strikers at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company on May 4, 1886, William Dean Howells felt provoked to respond.1 Whatever personal motives this highly publicized incident sparked in Howells, who was successful novelist and influential critic of the literature and social issues of his time, the strike and subsequent executions of seven of the protesters involved had a trenchant effect on this respected man of letters. Howells illustrated his remorse for what he understood as a profound legal injustice in a letter he wrote to a friend shortly before the hanging of the Haymarket protesters: "It blackens my life. I feel the horror and the shame of the crime which the law is about to commit against justice."2 Howells' assertions in regard to the case were at the time radical and not widely supported; they contradicted the views of the majority of the American media, who chose to back big business and to disregard details that to Howells marked the trial as corrupt. Howells' views challenged a general sentiment in the press against working class protesters, who, like the workers involved in the Haymarket Incident, demanded certain rights in the workplace and proposed an eight-hour work day.3 It had become a trend in the media to back the employers rather than the employed, in the name of the free market, before the Haymarket "riots." For example, several years before the incident at Haymarket, the Chicago Tribune had characterized a group of railroad workers involved in a similar incident as "the scum and filth of the city." Three days later, commenting on the organizers of the same uprising, the Tribune contended that "Capitalism would offer any sum to see the leaders...strung up to a tel egraph pole."4 Howells was known for his radical political views, views which often questioned the effectiveness of a capitalist society, and it is not surprising that he subsequently supported the Haymarket laborers. Howells' socialistic views no doubt sprung in part from his readings of Tolstoy, especially from the Russian novelist's writings on the notion of "Christian Socialism." Howells once wrote, "Tolstoi [sic] gave me the heart to hope that the world may yet be made over in the image of Him who died for it,...(that) men shall come into their own,.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Difference Between Coe and Ece

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction Some of the entering college students have the misconception that Computer Engineering and Electronics and Communication Engineering are only the same. But these are definitely different. This research will specify the differences between COE and ECE. It will give information in choosing their career and it will also use as a guide for incoming freshmen. Basically Electronics and Communication Engineering, deals in the study of communication and signals. It is a combination of electronics and communication. Communication like what we have nowadays; radio waves, spectrum, etc.It requires also a study in electronics, which deals with circuits. It deals more with hardware like integrated circuits. Logically it is also interlinked with computers. Computer Engineering is about the whole understanding of the concepts of computer. Such as operating system, programming, database, networks, software, hardware, etc. as this concept are esse ntial for who will take this course. Based on the definition of the two mentioned course, the differences between can be seen. It only means that they are not the same because they differ on field of study.In terms of job they can get, of course they also differ. As this research continues, it will cite more differences of ECE and COE. This research will help the incoming freshmen to their toughest decision in choosing in their career. Statement of the Problems/Objectives What is the distinction between the courses of Computer Engineering and the Electronics and Communication Engineering? †¢ Why is that most of the students considered that the Computer Engineering course is under the Electronics and Communications Engineering? †¢ Why is Computer Engineering course does not have its own board examination? What are the differences of their fields, duties and specialization? †¢ Is it true that COE came from the concept of ECE? Significance of the Study The researchers co nduct this research for the benefits of the: †¢ Incoming first year students of Computer Engineering in Bulacan State University to give them the vision of what COE is and how it is differ from ECE. †¢ The current second year students of the university to help them to choose between COE and ECE, and decide in third year either to stay in COE or shift to other courses of Engineering like ECE. Readers of this research to give them knowledge about the COE and ECE courses of College of Engineering in Bulacan State University. Scope and Delimitation The research is about the comparison of the courses of COE and ECE in terms of citing some of their differences and the details of each course and to prove that Computer Engineering is not under Electronics and Communication Engineering. The research also resolves the problem of COE being recognized as a major or course under ECE.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Pepsi SWOT

An internal analysis of Pepsi reveals some core strengths and weaknesses. Their strengths include a broad product line and great reputation, number one maker of snacks, and they sell three products through the same distribution channel. Pepsi, Gatorade, and Tropicana share production capabilities which aids in the reduction of costs, improves efficiency, and smoothes out the impact of seasonal fluctuations in demand for a particular product. On the other hand, Pepsi has some weaknesses that include Pepsi products that do not bear the company name, a lack of brand awareness with some of their products, and a majority of their sales comes from the U. S. market and about 1/3 of their sales is from Frito-Lay. In Pepsi’s external environment they encounter a few opportunities as well as some threats. Opportunities that they can take advantage of include the increasing trend towards healthier food, noncarbonated drinks which are the fastest growing part of the industry, and international markets that they have not yet tapped into. However, Pepsi faces threats from several competitors such as Coca Cola and Kraft Foods due to Pepsi’s broad product line. In addition, since sales from Frito-Lay makes up a large portion of their profits, a downturn in the market will pose another threat to them. Pepsi uses a diversification strategy that is keyed towards product innovation, close relationships with distribution allies, international expansion, and strategic acquisitions. Most of PepsiCo brands have achieved number one or number two positions in their respective food or beverage categories through these strategies. Furthermore, their management has a proven ability to capture strategic fits between the operations of new acquisitions and its other businesses. They have also formulated three divisions that are comprised of PepsiCo Americas Foods division, PepsiCo Americas Beverages division, and PepsiCo International in order to increase efficiency in each area. In 2008, a new element in their corporate strategy was product reformulations to make snack foods and beverages healthier. This was a step in the right direction. It is very important for Pepsi to respond to the current trend of healthier food and drink options.Coke and Pepsi They should introduce a wide variety of noncarbonated beverages, such as water and orange juice, to the U. S. and abroad to increase their market share and maintain profit growth. They can utilize their Power of One strategy in international markets, where their Frito-Lay brand is doing very well, to encourage the purchase of their beverages. When Pepsi acquired Quaker Oats it was a smart move to be able to offer consumers less fattening snack foods. They should provide such alternatives through their Frito-Lay brand as well. If Pepsi implements these recommendations it will help ensure their top spots in the food and beverage industries.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Comparing Animal Revolutionist and Russian Revolutionist essays

Comparing Animal Revolutionist and Russian Revolutionist essays Comparing Animal Revolutionist and Russian Revolutionist There are many people that had an influence on the Russian Revolution but three names stand out in bold, these people are Joseph Stalin (the ruthless Russian leader,) Leon Trotsky (the smooth talking leader that opposed Stalin,) and Nikolai Lenin (the creator of the Russian Revolution.) There are three pigs in the novel Animal Farm by George Orwell that really stand out from the start of the book until the finish. These pigs are Napoleon (the ruthless leader of Animal Farm,) Snowball (the smooth talking pig,) and Old Major (the creator of Animalism.) Joseph Stalin and Napoleon will be compared together on how they are alike, Leon Trotsky and Snowball will be compared, and also Nikolai Lenin and Old Major will be the last comparison. In the paragraphs to come there will be a comparison between important influences in the Russian Revolution and the important characters in the novel Animal Farm. Orwell used his character Napoleon as symbolism for Joseph Stalin. The first thing that connects the two together is they both drove an opposing leader out of the country or Animal Farm. This leader was Leon Trotsky or in the novel Snowball. The two are also connected because Stalin used his Secret Police to scare people and Napoleon used his dogs to scare opposing animals. The evidence supporting this is when four young porkers in the front row uttered shrill squeals of, and all four of them sprang to their feet and begin speaking all at once disapproval as Napoleon was speaking. But suddenly the dogs around Napoleon let out deep, menacing growls, and the pigs fell silent (69). They were so scared that they sat down right away not saying a word. Leon Trotsky was connected to the character Snowball. What first connects the two is both Trotsky and Snowball were very intelligent and had brilliant speeches. The other thing that links the two is that both were forced away b ...

Monday, October 21, 2019

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Oh, IB Biology. I took IB Biology SL back in my high school days. If you are looking at this syllabus, you're likely interested in taking the course or are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I will go over the topics covered in IB Biology Standard Level and IB Biology Higher Level, as well as the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand for each topic. IB Biology SL and HL Core Both IB Biology SL and HL consist of the same core requirements (95 hours). Both classes cover the same six topics in the order listed below with the same subtopics listed below: Topic 1: Cell Biology- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to cells 1.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells. Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size. Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components. Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms. Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome. The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses. Ultrastructure of cells 1.2 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure. Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes. Membrane structure 1.3 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules. Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function. Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. Membrane transport 1.4 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport. The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within cells. The origin of cells 1.5 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells. The first cells must have arisen from non-living material. The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory. Cell division 1.6 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei. Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells. Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary tumours. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 2: Molecular Biology- 21 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Molecules to metabolism 2.1 Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable compounds to exist. Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. Water 2.2 Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them. Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Carbohydrates and lipids 2.3 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol. Proteins 2.4 Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes. Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of possible polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes. A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together. The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions. Every individual has a unique proteome. Enzymes 2.5 Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind. Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision of substrates with the active site. Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes. Enzymes can be denatured. Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry. Structure of DNA and RNA 2.6 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the type of pentose. DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs. DNA replication, transcription and translation 2.7 The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base pairing. Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing strand as a template. Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA polymerase. Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the genetic code. Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide. Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA. Cell respiration 2.8 Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell. Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose. Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose. Photosynthesis 2.9 Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy. Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the longest. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other colours. Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water. Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide. Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis. Topic 3: Genetics- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Genes 3.1 A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. The various specific forms of a gene are alleles. Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases. New alleles are formed by mutation. The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism. The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project. Chromosomes 3.2 Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule. Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not. Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins. In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes. Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same alleles of those genes. Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes. Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species. A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine sex. Meiosis 3.3 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes. DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids. The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation. Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random. Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number. Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation. Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation. Inheritance 3.4 Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which large numbers of pea plants were crossed. Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene. The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei during meiosis. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene that may be the same allele or different alleles. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint effects. Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles. Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex chromosomes. Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very rare. Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can cause genetic diseases and cancer. Genetic modification and biotechnology 3.5 Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size. PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA. DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA. Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species. Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived from a single original parent cell. Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of cloning. Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo into more than one group of cells. Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells. Topic 4: Ecology- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species, communities and ecosystems 4.1 Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations. Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods). Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion. Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion. Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion. A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other. A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment. Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment. The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling. Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time. Energy flow 4.2 Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight. Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis. Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding. Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and converted to heat. Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy. Heat is lost from ecosystems. Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels. Carbon cycling 4.3 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere. Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground. Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere. Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils. Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous rocks. Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter. Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone. Climate change 4.4 Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the most significant greenhouse gases. Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact. The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere. The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat). Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the atmosphere. Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of greenhouse gases. There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures. Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter. Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Evidence for evolution 5.1 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution. Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution. Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. Natural selection 5.2 Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a species. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species. Classification of biodiversity 5.3 The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of congresses. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. All organisms are classified into three domains. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group. Cladistics 5.4 A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor. Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein. Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Traits can be analogous or homologous. Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades. Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species. Topic 6: Human Physiology- 20 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Digestion and absorption 6.1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine. Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine. Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins. Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients. The blood system 6.2 Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump cycles. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart. Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow. There is a separate circulation for the lungs. The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles. The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of the brain. Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity. Defense against infectious disease 6.3 The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against pathogens that cause infectious disease. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. Clotting factors are released from platelets. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin. Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives non-specific immunity to diseases. Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to particular pathogens gives specific immunity. Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not in eukaryotic cells. Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with antibiotics. Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have multiple resistance. Gas exchange 6.4 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries. Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension. Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles. Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them. Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract. Neurons and synapses 6.5 Neurons transmit electrical impulses. The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction. Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential. An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron. Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons. Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon to reach the threshold potential. Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells. When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse. A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached. Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction 6.6 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ± cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentration. Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body temperature. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms. A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone. Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. Additional Higher Level Topics Only students taking IB Biology HL cover these topics. They consist of 60 hours of study. Topic 7: Nucleic Acids- 9 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand DNA structure and replication (HL ONLY) 7.1 Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA. DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication. DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer. DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand. DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes. Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other important functions. Transcription and gene expression (HL ONLY) 7.2 Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction. Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription. Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce. Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA. The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact on gene expression. Translation (HL ONLY) 7.3 Initiation of translation involves assembly of the components that carry out the process. Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of events. Disassembly of the components follows termination of translation. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell. Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for use in lysosomes. Translation can occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide is the primary structure. The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups. The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis- 14 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Metabolism (HL ONLY) 8.1 Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse. Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive. Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition. Cell respiration (HL ONLY) 8.2 Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers. Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable. In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen. In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction. In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide. Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD. Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping. In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP. Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water. The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs. Photosynthesis (HL ONLY) 8.3 Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids. Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma. Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions. Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons. Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions. Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes. Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP. In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates. Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis. Topic 9: Plant Biology- 13 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Transport in the xylem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.1 Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf. Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration. The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension. The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls. Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis. Transport in the phloem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.2 Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks. Incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients. Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source. High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis. Raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow towards sinks. Growth in plants (HL ONLY) 9.3 Undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth. Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the stem and development of leaves. Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex. Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms. Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue. Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression. Reproduction in plants (HL ONLY) 9.4 Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex. The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants. Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal. Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction. Topic #10: Genetics and Evolution- 8 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Meiosis (HL ONLY) 10.1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chromatids. Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells. Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an exchange of alleles. Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II. Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Inheritance (HL ONLY) 10.2 Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis. Variation can be discrete or continuous. The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation. Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between an observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant. Gene pools and speciation (HL ONLY) 10.3 A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles, present in an interbreeding population. Evolution requires that allele frequencies change with time in populations. Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioural or geographic. Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be gradual. Speciation can occur abruptly. Topic 11: Animal Physiology- 16 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Antibody production and vaccination (HL ONLY) 11.1 Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its cells. Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers. B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals. Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells secrete antibodies. Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens. White cells release histamine in response to allergens. Histamines cause allergic symptoms. Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells. Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease. Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells. Movement (HL ONLY) 11.2 Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and act as levers. Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others. Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs. Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres. The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments. ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide. Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contractions. The kidney and osmoregulation (HL ONLY) 11.3 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers. The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes. The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein. The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration. The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active transport. The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla. ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water conservation in animals. The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history and habitat. Sexual reproduction (HL ONLY) 11.4 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm. Fertilization in animals can be internal or external. Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy. Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy. HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy. The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus. Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed. Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin. Options As a part of the IB Biology class, you'll cover one additional subject from the options below. (Typically you don’t choose, but rather your teacher does.) Whichever option you or your teacher chooses, you'll cover three or four topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional two or three topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Neurobiology and Behaviour- 15 Hours for SL and 25 hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Neural development A.1 The neural tube of embryonic chordates is formed by infolding of ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube. Neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube. Immature neurons migrate to a final location. An axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli. Some axons extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body. A developing neuron forms multiple synapses. Synapses that are not used do not persist. Neural pruning involves the loss of unused neurons. The plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with experience. The human brain A.2 The anterior part of the neural tube expands to form the brain. Different parts of the brain have specific roles. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the body using centres located mainly in the brain stem. The cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain and is more highly developed in humans than other animals. The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher order functions. The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice versa for the right hemisphere. The left cerebral hemisphere controls muscle contraction in the right side of the body and vice versa for the right hemisphere. Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs. Perception of stimuli A.3 Receptors detect changes in the environment. Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina. Rods and cones differ in their sensitivities to light intensities and wavelengths. Bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells send messages to the brain via the optic nerve. The information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the left part of the visual cortex and vice versa. Structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound. Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of specific wavelengths. Impulses caused by sound perception are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve. Hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head. Additional HL Neurobiology and Behaviour Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Innate and learned behaviour (HL ONLY) A.4 Innate behaviour is inherited from parents and so develops independently of the environment. Autonomic and involuntary responses are referred to as reflexes. Reflex arcs comprise the neurons that mediate reflexes. Reflex conditioning involves forming new associations. Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. Imprinting is learning occurring at a particular life stage and is independent of the consequences of behaviour. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and accessing information. Neuropharmacology (HL ONLY) A.5 Some neurotransmitters excite nerve impulses in postsynaptic neurons and others inhibit them. Nerve impulses are initiated or inhibited in post-synaptic neurons as a result of summation of all excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters received from presynaptic neurones. Many different slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate fast synaptic transmission in the brain. Memory and learning involve changes in neurones caused by slow-acting neurotransmitters. Psychoactive drugs affect the brain by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission. Anesthetics act by interfering with neural transmission between areas of sensory perception and the CNS. Stimulant drugs mimic the stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system. Addiction can be affected by genetic predisposition, social environment and dopamine secretion. Ethology (HL ONLY) A.6 Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural conditions. Natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour. Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population. Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour. Option B: Biotechnology and Bioinformatics- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Microbiology: organisms in industry B.1 Microorganisms are metabolically diverse. Microorganisms are used in industry because they are small and have a fast growth rate. Pathway engineering optimizes genetic and regulatory processes within microorganisms. Pathway engineering is used industrially to produce metabolites of interest. Fermenters allow large-scale production of metabolites by microorganisms. Fermentation is carried out by batch or continuous culture. Microorganisms in fermenters become limited by their own waste products. Probes are used to monitor conditions within fermenters. Conditions are maintained at optimal levels for the growth of the microorganisms being cultured. Biotechnology in agriculture B.2 Transgenic organisms produce proteins that were not previously part of their species’ proteome. Genetic modification can be used to overcome environmental resistance to increase crop yields. Genetically modified crop plants can be used to produce novel products. Bioinformatics plays a role in identifying target genes. The target gene is linked to other sequences that control its expression. An open reading frame is a significant length of DNA from a start codon to a stop codon. Marker genes are used to indicate successful uptake. Recombinant DNA must be inserted into the plant cell and taken up by its chromosome or chloroplast DNA. Recombinant DNA can be introduced into whole plants, leaf discs or protoplasts. Recombinant DNA can be introduced by direct physical and chemical methods or indirectly by vectors. Environmental protection B.3 Responses to pollution incidents can involve bioremediation combined with physical and chemical procedures. Microorganisms are used in bioremediation. Some pollutants are metabolized by microorganisms. Cooperative aggregates of microorganisms can form biofilms. Biofilms possess emergent properties. Microorganisms growing in a biofilm are highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. Microorganisms in biofilms cooperate through quorum sensing. Bacteriophages are used in the disinfection of water systems. Additional HL Biotechnology and Bioinfomatics Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Medicine (HL ONLY) B.4 Infection by a pathogen can be detected by the presence of its genetic material or by its antigens. Predisposition to a genetic disease can be detected through the presence of markers. DNA microarrays can be used to test for genetic predisposition or to diagnose the disease. Metabolites that indicate disease can be detected in blood and urine. Tracking experiments are used to gain information about the localization and interaction of a desired protein. Biopharming uses genetically modified animals and plants to produce proteins for therapeutic use. Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy. Bioinformatics (HL ONLY) B.5 Databases allow scientists easy access to information. The body of data stored in databases is increasing exponentially. BLAST searches can identify similar sequences in different organisms. Gene function can be studied using model organisms with similar sequences. Sequence alignment software allows comparison of sequences from different organisms. BLASTn allows nucleotide sequence alignment while BLASTp allows protein alignment. Databases can be searched to compare newly identified sequences with sequences of known function in other organisms. Multiple sequence alignment is used in the study of phylogenetics. EST is an expressed sequence tag that can be used to identify potential genes. Option C: Ecology and Conservation- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species and communities C.1 The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species. Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species. Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect. Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical. Communities and ecosystems C.2 Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food chains. A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community. The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is dependent on the respiration rate. The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is predictable based on climate. In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with the surroundings. Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within ecosystems. Impacts of humans on ecosystems C.3 Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and become invasive. Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species become invasive. Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification. Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine environments. Conservation of biodiversity C.4 An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific environmental condition. Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index. In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks. Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats. Biogeographic factors affect species diversity. Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity. Additional HL Ecology and Conservation Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Population ecology (HL ONLY) C.5 Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size. The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal, unlimited environment. Population growth slows as a population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment. The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration. Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles (HL ONLY) C.6 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Rhizobium associates with roots in a mutualistic relationship. In the absence of oxygen denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate in the soil. Phosphorus can be added to the phosphorus cycle by application of fertilizer or removed by the harvesting of agricultural crops. The rate of turnover in the phosphorus cycle is much lower than the nitrogen cycle. Availability of phosphate may become limiting to agriculture in the future. Leaching of mineral nutrients from agricultural land into rivers causes eutrophication and leads to increased biochemical oxygen demand. Option D: Human Physiology- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Human nutrition D.1 Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, therefore they have to be included in the diet. Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements. Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body. Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential. Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins. Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet. Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes. Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. Digestion D.2 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of digestive juices. Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the gut. The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms. Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in ingested food. The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the absorption of food. The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fibre content. Materials not absorbed are egested. Functions of the liver D.3 The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them. Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver. The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells by Kupffer cells. Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells. Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce plasma proteins. The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels. Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver. The heart D.4 Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of stimuli through the heart wall. Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to ventricles. There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node. This delay allows time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close. Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall. Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow. Additional HL Human Physiology Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Hormones and metabolism (HL ONLY) D.5 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form a receptor–hormone complex. The receptor–hormone complex promotes the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Binding of hormones to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell. The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland. Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth, developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis. Transport of respiratory gases (HL ONLY) D.6 Oxygen dissociation curves show the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to hemoglobin in the blood. Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into hydrogencarbonate ions. The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues. Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH. The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata. During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood. Fetal hemoglobin is different from adult hemoglobin allowing the transfer of oxygen in the placenta onto the fetal hemoglobin. Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities: 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA): 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project:10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Experiments may not be this cool. What’s Next? Thinking about taking AP Biology instead? Learn what's covered in a AP Bio here. Looking for more in-depth explorations of the topics mentioned on this syllabus? Read our subject-specific articles on topics varying from the photosynthesis equation to homologous and analogous structures to cell biology (including cell theory, enzymes, and how the cell membrane and endoplasmic reticulum work). Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Character Tags in Fiction

Character Tags in Fiction Character Tags in Fiction Character Tags in Fiction By Maeve Maddox In the parlance of fiction writing, a character tag is a repetitive verbal device used to identify a character in the mind of the reader. More than a simple description, a character tag calls to mind aspects of the characters personality and uniqueness. Uriah Heeps clammy hands, his constant hand rubbing, and his use of the word humble to describe himself and his mother are character tags that make him unforgettable. Sherlock Holmes and his violin, his shag tobacco, and his uncanny aptitude for noting and interpreting details others ignore, are only three of the numerous character tags that make him live in our imagination. Character tags may be drawn from any aspect of the characters appearance or behavior: voice gestures body carriage dialect and speech mannerisms hair clothing scent mental state A sympathetic character who has red hair may be described as having carrot red hair, while a creepy character might have hair the color of dried blood. Some characters in a novel may appear only a few times, but the most minor character needs a character tag or two to make him memorable. In The Mummers Curse Gillian Roberts introduces a minor character with this description: I didn’t recognize him, but I didnt think I should be scared. He was polite, his voice low-pitched and confident, and apparently he knew me. Besides, he was elegant. In his early forties, I thought, with prematurely silver hair uncovered despite the freezing wind, and looking none the worse for it. His topcoat was visibly soft, cashmere, I suspected, and his hands, encased in buttery brown gloves, held a leather-bound book with gold-edged pages. When the character appears again, the author reiterates some of these details, for example, the silver hair that defies the elements, the expensive attire, and the book. C. R. Corwins Morgue Mama Mysteries feature a newspaper librarian in her sixties. Many of her character tags have to do with her appearance: My name is Dolly Madison Sprowls. Im 68 years old. Im short, a little dumpy, and I havent changed my hairstyle since college. I looked up and found Chick Glass. I figured that was you, Maddy, he said. He playfully flicked my Prince Valiant bangs with his fingers. Used judiciously, character tags add dimension to the characters and enable the reader to tell them apart. Depending on what mental baggage the reader brings to the story, however, character tags can jar the reader out of the dream and cause annoyance. In the Amanda Pepper mysteries by Gillian Roberts, Amanda is a native of Philadelphia. Her boyfriend Mackenzie is from the South. One of his character tags is that he lapses into his native speech when stressed. Speech tags involving dialect and speech mannerisms can be effective, but Roberts doesnt just make use of the tag and move on; she has Amanda comment at such length on Mackenzies lapses that I grow annoyed at what seems to me to be a display of a misplaced sense of regional superiority. The Maddy Sprowls character has two character tags that yank me out of the story every time they occur. One is a speech tag and the other involves a habitual gesture. Here are examples: Are you saying Gordon was gay? Good gravy, does everything have to be about sex? She took the brick†¦How much did you pay for it? I pawed the air. It was a steal. Every time I read the interjection Good gravy, I pictured Archie, Jughead, Betty, and Veronica from the comics. I dont know if they said it, but thats what I thought of every time and there are lots of good gravies in Dig. The other tag that never failed to jar is I pawed the air. Maddy paws the air a lot. Every time I read that tag I imagined a rearing horse. I finally decided that Corwin intended to convey the dismissive gesture one might make while saying Pshaw! Character tags are great ways to make fictional characters live, but take care to avoid any that may defeat the purpose of keeping the reader engaged in the story. More on character tags: Kaye Dacus Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely?50 Idioms About Roads and PathsMood vs. Tense

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Writing effective email Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Writing effective email - Essay Example The use of short form words or slang should not be for academic purpose emails (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2009). The first rule is to think before sending an email. This rule will prevent the sender from sending wrong information, information that is not written in understandable language, sending to the wrong recipient accidentally or even sending the email to multiple people instead of only the concerned party (which therefore makes a private email public and may lead to embarrassing situations). The other rule is to send an email that you would like to receive. This according to the review by David Barry is to discourage the forwarding or email messages that are annoying, meaningless or hate messages. The correct recipients to an email should be established before-hand to ensure the emails you receive will in turn be those that you want (Barry, 2007). There is a similarity in the analysis of the voice and tone of the email habits by the two writers: Ms. Mentor and Dave Barry. Their voice is humorous which indicates their comical nature hence making the articles more interesting and appealing to read. Their tone however is more powerful, truthful and subjective which serves to show the importance of the message in the article but without neutralizing the humor in them. Barry, D. (May 6, 2007). â€Å"You’ve Got Trouble.† The New Yorks Times. Retrieved from:

Friday, October 18, 2019

Critique assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critique assignment - Essay Example It was good that the working title of their report was itself the primary aim indicated in the abstract. The authors were apparently determined to be consistent throughout. However, they failed to narrow down the research title, which was too general. The abstract specifically said that the patients were 42 men but the title overlooked this. Also, though the title may be understandable to readers of varying backgrounds, the abstract looked informal and deviated from the usual academic tone. It had sub-headings, some of which were composed of phrases instead of recognized sentences. The abstract’s opening line â€Å"Aim: To assess changes in quality of life (QoL) and oxygen consumption produced by two different patterns of physical training in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF)† was certainly a phrase. Though the abstract gave an accurate synopsis of the report, it was just puzzling why such informality was allowed to be published by professors and by an intern ational journal. The report did mention how participants were allocated into three groups as part of the intervention process, but failed to specify the randomization technique used. The introduction part was not very direct in conveying its message to readers, whoever they may be. There was never any mention for whom the report was intended – whether it was for aspiring cardiologists, for physical therapists, for patients with CHF beyond the study’s jurisdiction, or for nearly anyone interested in the research. Moreover, the scientific explanations provided in the introduction lacked statistical backing, which would have strengthened the need or the rationale for conducting the research (University of Guelph, n.d.). For instance, the authors merely explained the meaning of congestive heart failure and its association with high mortality the way a medical dictionary would. The meaning did not prove the necessity for employing physical exercises to improve the QoL and oxygen

What Can Be Done with Violence against Women Essay

What Can Be Done with Violence against Women - Essay Example The International Women’s Human Right Foundation has defined Human right with regard to Women in several ways. First under the umbrella called The Universal Declaration of Human Rights   it has been stated   that "everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or another opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or another status." (Article 2).secondly, The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states that "violence against women means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life." (Article 1) It further asserts that states have an obligation to " exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accor dance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons." (Article 4-c).the third and last definition is from The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Here, discrimination against women has been defined as any "distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women. This is irrespective of their marital status, on the basis of equality between men and women, of human rights or fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."  Ã‚  

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Monopoly and Oligopoly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Monopoly and Oligopoly - Essay Example Another feature of oligopoly is that the actions of another firm largely affect the other firms. It means that the success of another firm depends on the action of another firm. Oligopolies would want to know what other firms have availed in the market. For example, McDonalds will keep monitoring what Wendy’s have made available in the market. Oligopolistic market also has a bit of a barrier for entry to the market but not like monopoly market structure. Conversely, monopoly is characterized by the products differentiation. This means that the firm produces a product that is unique. This means that there is no close substitute for the product. Monopoly operates as a single seller in the market; it is a firm that provides most of the supplies in the market. Bookstores in campuses are some examples of monopolies. Unlike perfect competition, the kind of market that monopoly operates is not easy to enter due to quite a number of barriers for entry such as legal barriers (Tucker, 2010). A natural monopoly is where by one firm stands out as a primary supplier despite the presence of other firms. In this industry, it is advantageous for production to be concentrated on this major firm rather than contested competitively. Natural monopolies are mostly public utilities. The legality of these natural monopolies is based on the fact that it is economically sensible to have them. That is the cost of production of goods and services, for example power, by these monopolies, are very high such that it is economically sufficient if only one company produces it. The government however regulates the operation of the two monopolies. This information shows why ‘natural’ monopolies are legal and other monopolies illegal (Hirschey, 2008). Laissez-faire is seen as an economic-policy doctrine. This doctrine opposes government interference in business other than the minimum functions of ensuring peace,

Corporate Governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporate Governance - Essay Example In an age when countries compete in a global economy, compliance with corporate governance standards has become crucial to businesses’ survival. Especially in the Middle East, which is culturally and politically distance from the rest of the world, compliance with the internationally accepted principles of corporate governance has become a challenge. This thesis aims to examine how a specific aspect of corporate governance—disclosure and transparency is viewed and applied in the Saudi Arabian context. The results of this study are important primarily for Saudi Arabian businesses positioned to play a significant role in the global economy. These companies could benefit greatly from the financial strength provided by international investments, the technical and strategic advantages offered by partnerships and joint ventures with foreign companies and the market leadership obtained by gaining the trust and confidence of consumers in the global market. Achieving these benefits becomes feasible only if Saudi firms can comply with the minimum disclosure and transparency requirements. The thesis employs critical and comparative analysis. It explores the academic literature on corporate disclosure and discusses the theories and principles espoused in the context of the Saudi Arabian legal and regulatory framework. Also discussed is the vital role of the Islamic principles in Sharia law, which forms the basis of the Saudi legal system. This study proposes corporate disclosure practices as the basis for comprehensive reform of Saudi Arabia’s Capital Market Authority. The study offers recommendations for increasing transparency, disclosure and the associated principles in the Saudi Arabia stock market and better protecting minority shareholders. These recommendations follow the United Kingdom’s corporate governance approach but reflect the interests, culture, treaties, Sharia principles and legislative reforms of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Monopoly and Oligopoly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Monopoly and Oligopoly - Essay Example Another feature of oligopoly is that the actions of another firm largely affect the other firms. It means that the success of another firm depends on the action of another firm. Oligopolies would want to know what other firms have availed in the market. For example, McDonalds will keep monitoring what Wendy’s have made available in the market. Oligopolistic market also has a bit of a barrier for entry to the market but not like monopoly market structure. Conversely, monopoly is characterized by the products differentiation. This means that the firm produces a product that is unique. This means that there is no close substitute for the product. Monopoly operates as a single seller in the market; it is a firm that provides most of the supplies in the market. Bookstores in campuses are some examples of monopolies. Unlike perfect competition, the kind of market that monopoly operates is not easy to enter due to quite a number of barriers for entry such as legal barriers (Tucker, 2010). A natural monopoly is where by one firm stands out as a primary supplier despite the presence of other firms. In this industry, it is advantageous for production to be concentrated on this major firm rather than contested competitively. Natural monopolies are mostly public utilities. The legality of these natural monopolies is based on the fact that it is economically sensible to have them. That is the cost of production of goods and services, for example power, by these monopolies, are very high such that it is economically sufficient if only one company produces it. The government however regulates the operation of the two monopolies. This information shows why ‘natural’ monopolies are legal and other monopolies illegal (Hirschey, 2008). Laissez-faire is seen as an economic-policy doctrine. This doctrine opposes government interference in business other than the minimum functions of ensuring peace,

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

The Development of Investment Banking in Hong Kong Research Paper

The Development of Investment Banking in Hong Kong - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that investment banking is a type of financial service dealings with the creation of capital for other companies and co-operation. Investment banks underwrite new debts and equity securities for corporations.   They also offer guidance to issuers of security and placement of stock. In addition, they foresee sales of securities in some cases. Investment banks also take part in the mergers, acquisitions, reorganization and broker trades for firms and private investors.   A distinction feature between investment banking and commercial banking is that investment banks do not deal in cash deposits. Corporate finance is the fundamental aspect of investment banking; it also entails helping customers raise funds in capital markets. The banks also provide their customers with supplementary services such as market making, trading of derivatives, commodities as well as fixed income instruments. However, there are some instances where the bank exis ts as a part of a commercial bank but as a chief commercial banker. There are two categories or classes of investment banks based on their mode of operation. This is more relevantly defined as branches of operation in investment banking. The first is simply referred to as the ‘Sell Side’; it carries out functions such as trading securities for an exchange of cash or other securities. Under this section, the bank facilitates transactions and promotes securities and market making services. The other category is the â€Å"Buy Side†. It is concerned with the provision of guidance and advice. It deals with purchasing of investment services. Some of the organizations that deal with this category include unit trusts, insurance companies, private equity funds and mutual funds. The banking system can also be split into private and public functions. This comes to play when there is information barrier which makes the two sections separate since there is no information cros sing to either side of the system. The private section deals with private insider information; under no circumstance should this kind of information be disclosed to the public. The public section, on the other hand, deals with public information such as analysis of the stock, which is suitable for public consumption. The origin of investment banks in Hong Kong can be traced back to 1865 when major financial activities were carried out by HSBC. This was a name derived from Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, who were the founding members of the modern group. The bank was owned by business communities of China cost in 1869. During this period financial trade in the region was not yet developed and most banking activities were still handled by Europeans or Hongs, instead of professional bankers. However, people began to venture in entrepreneurship raising the demand of larger and more sophisticated banking facilities and services. The citizens in Hong  Kong particularly neede d a specialized banking system, which was preferably owned and managed locally. After being colonized the British the colony has rapidly become a regional hub for trade in South Asia. Also due to its strategic location in a gateway of China Hong Kong has become the most important financial center in the world and attracting a huge number of investors from all over the world in its investment banking system. The industry has been modernized and conditions set that would see investment banking flourishing. This is due to the low tax rates and also considerable economic rise are key factors that have to lead to the modernization of investment banking in Hong Kong. Hong Kong harbors the best investment banks in the region which have developed over the historic period of banking evolution. It provides regional leaders, with dedicated teams of professionals serving a wide range of clients.

Future Competitive Threats of China and India for Industries Essay Example for Free

Future Competitive Threats of China and India for Industries Essay Discuss the future competitive threats of China and India for industries in developed countries. The emergence of China as the mass manufacturing pioneer in the world has lead to the concern that China will soon be competing with the industries in the developed nations. India, at the same time, is emerging as the centre of IT enabled services including software development, and poses significant threat to the developed countries in high-skill goods and services. Today, the main competitive threat that China and India pose to the developed nations is their cheap labour. They are able to produce basically anything at a much lower price compare to those in the western developed nations. Therefore, they signify threats to these countries. However, on the future prospects, China and India would acquire competitive threat that is different from what they were before. For instance, the education rate in China and India are both increasing, and they produce about half a million of scientists and engineers a year comparing to mere 60,000 in the US. Therefore, these skilled labours will take over the current low skilled labours in these two countries and further exploit the opportunities that they have, and compete better in the high skill sectors. In addition, many companies from the developed nations have shifted their RD centre to the China and India, therefore, China and India are able to learn and gain experience through these foreign RD centre and excel in innovations in the future. This makes the developed nations to lose their competitive advantage, and signifies competitive threat from China and India.

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Mini Bran Re positioning Analysis

Mini Bran Re positioning Analysis According to the book Strategic brand management by Kevin Lane Keller (2008) , Identifying and creating brand positioning is the first and important stage of the strategic brand management process. Positioning effects on a founding benchmark and works toward building a strong brand by helping marketers to design, to implement, to solidify or to sustain brand associations. Aaker ( ) also supports the idea that the brand position can offer clear direction to a communication program implementation. To establish the position of a brand, the concept of it should be clearly defined. Criticism of the literature reveals numerous meanings and clarification of positioning. Sekhar, (1989) states that the concept of positioning developed from research on market segmentation and targeting. Kotler (2003, p. 308) defines brand positioning as the act of designing the companys offering and image to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target market. The end result of positioning is the succe ssful creation of a customer-focused value proposition, a cogent reason why the target market should buy the product. Arnott (1992, 1993) parallels the idea by stating that positioning is, correlated to the rivalry, management attempt to adjust the tangible features and the intangible views of a marketable contribution. Furthermore, Kapferer, (2004, p. 99) emphasises on the distinctive characteristics that make a band different from its competitors and alluring to the public. In addition, Sengupta (2005 ) enhances the term of perception that indicate the core of the brand in terms of its functional and emotional benefit in the decision of customer. Also, it is shown as points in perceptual space and think up a product class. In essence, Keller outlines the idea behind the concept of brand positioning that involves four aspects; target market identification, the nature of competitors, the ideal of points of parity, and the points of difference. Identifying target market is crucial part in establish a robust positioning because dissimilar segment may have diverse brand knowledge structure or perceive the same brand in different way vary by own attitudes, beliefs, and experience. The target customer can be classified as descriptive (customer-oriented), which associated to the kind of customer or behavioral (product-oriented), which related to how customers consider of or utilizes the brand or product. The behavioral side is more significant to comprehend brand position due to stronger strategic implication. Decided type of target can, then, implicitly sketches the nature of rivalry because businesses usually target that same segment in terms of category membership. Once the appropriate competitive frame of reference for positioning has been formed, the correct points of parity (POPs) and points of difference (PODs) are able to make. Point of parity (POPs) are characteristics or benefits that may mutual with other brands separated into two forms: category and competitive. Category point of parity is a standard association expected by customers to show the credibility of companies. Competitive Point of parity are associations designed to abolish rivalry Point of difference. It is used when firms want to break even the area that competitors are attempting to seek an advantage and achieve advantages in some other areas. To illustrate, to enter in the fast food industry, there are key elements that help customers to label a brand as a fast food restaurant such as quick service, good taste, and low prices. These are fundamental features and benefits of product category that it belongs to. Point of difference, on the other hand, comprises of strong, favorable and unique associations for a br and based on attribute or benefit association in the mind of customer. It is associations that customers believe that they couldnt find in the competitive brand. It is considered by functional basis, performance-related consideration and imagery related criterion, which are competitive strengths and insight about consumers motivations. Reeves and Ted Bates advertising agency (1950) also support the common concept of PODs in terms of unique selling proposition (USP) that promoting use to compel customers to buy product that competitors could not race. For instance, fast-food chain Subway uses the healthier benefit as PODs compared with other quick-serve restaurants that supported by less fat attribute. Nike, for another example, claim of superior performance in athletic shoes. Nowadays, business environment is becoming more intensively competitive. Marketers must certify that their brands constantly amend to stay s, at the same time as keeping on the true core values (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1999). There are many reasons that make a firm to reconsider about its brand position which could be environmentally driven, Consumer driven, Competitor driven, and company driven. The environmentally driven can cause by economic issue, political issue, or the green movement. Consumer driven is able to be the change of consumer needs and lifestyles or the attractiveness of alternative target markets . Moreover, the driven from internal of company usually be a change in company strategy or gaining of new technology or other asset that provides the brand a competitive advantage and valuable differentiator. Finally, the essential reason that affects a brand to reposition is the competitor movement. Markets are shredded and full with proposition that rivals try to display the ir point of different and superior positioning. Then, the brand may be faced by a new stronger positioning. Often, competitive advantages survive for only a short period before competitors attempt to match them, which may harm the brand positioning in terms of building satisfactory distinction benefits over their contenders (Clancy and Trout, 2002). Thus, brand should react by using repositioning strategy to change and stay contemporary and fresh in the eyes of customers. Trout and Ries () propose an idea of the repositioning that involve with competition, change, and crisis issues. Firstly, repositioning can compete the rival by discriminate the brand or product and add value to it. Secondly, since time pass by, brand should update itself and make connection to target customer by using technology and communication and multimedia assets. Finally, repositioning can cure the crisis especially the cost issue. Ryan et al ()also gives the meaning of repositioning that is the way to re-ad apt brand position the consumers thought to change the way in which a firms product or service is apprehend. Basically, positioning and repositioning are the same; they are both process of getting ownership of a place in the thoughts of the target market that is proper, differentiating and fascinating. These two activities are , likewise, bases on the Customer Based Brand Equity (CBBE) Model settled by Keller in 1993 which defined as the different effect that consumer knowledge has on the customers response to marketing activity. To clarify, this paper will show the illustration of two repositioned brand of the automobile industry in both successful and fail way. Begin with brand that succeed in repositioning that is MINI, The MINI (original named Mini) is one of the most well known brands in the car industry, and indeed the most prosperous British car in terms of volume sold (Birmingham Mini Owners Club, 2002). It was launched in 1959 by British Motor Corporation. It was originally designed for four people seat, in a small size, practical, easy to park and economical. Also, priced was inexpensively. This responded to a fuel shortage, and the need for more efficient city cars. The Mini Cooper was designed and commercialized as a faster and sporty version of the Mini that would allow the car to compete successfully in rallying. Moreover, in 1969 the Mini was placed on the film The Italian Job. Due to the combination of the Minis rallying success and celebrity style reputation so it became a necessary fashion accessory. It gained the cultural status that considered as a British icon. The Mini Coopers status was variable between the 1970s and the 1980s as the license for the brand was sold to Spanish and Italian companies. In 1994, BMW bought the Rover Group, the owner of the Mini and launched the line in 2000. BMW still used the Mini brand to unite old and new to form explicit and consistence profile, but a bit change in name from Mini to MINI. Launching the New MINI had task to preserve the MINI from becoming a fad. Therefore, business strategy of BMW is to position the MINI as a symbol. It target young groups of customers that are urbane, stylish, individualistic or characteristically take their own path, value and quality consider, love to drive, and a trendsetter. To meet the target market need, characteristic, and lifestyle, Mini brand came out the repositioning strategy that tried to attract customer in both logical level by the products performance and insurance of quality, and at a sensational level by the value of the brands image or product aesthetics. At the rational level, MINI keeps the perception of a small premium car. It emphasized in practical and brand heritage about being an economy small sport car that have a different and new technical base. There are three main competitive advantages that support the aspect; custom design, modern quality technology, and outstanding safety. Firstly, MINI has an extensiv e variety of equipment along with paintwork choices, applications on the external and rare materials for the internal that make MINI customizable and can be differentiate. As a result, it offers customers to choose their own style MINI to express and show their own brand personality. Secondly, the quality dimension, it involves; body structure setting new standards, the powerful engines, the most progressive suspension technology, which makes driver feel a go-kart experience. Thirdly, the safety system guarantee excellent safety airbag system, which makes the MINI one of the safest and the most reliable cars in its category. At an emotional level, the MINI stressed on the fun facet, play with the slogan fun to drive. Thus, MINI attempted to create brand personality of it as fun loving, outrageous, cheeky, trendy, sporting and attractive. The victory of the MINI brand repositioning can be analyzed in many aspects. Firstly it achieved in clearly defined its target market so it could offer the brand attributes or benefits that meet the target needs and, also, was able to compete with the relevant brands in the sporty compact cars market such as Honda and Volkswagen. Likewise, MINI did not forget to offer the Category points-of-parity; it provided essential and credible attributes that a car should have to customers. Additionally, MINI can prove strong superiority on its attribute and benefit and, too, consumers can be swayed. MINI brand associations met three criteria that can correctly be good at a point-of-difference; desirability, deliverability, and differentiability. First of all, the MINIs target customer was given a persuasive motive to believe by MINIs pose on exclusive design, up-to-date quality technology, excellent safety, plus fun emotion. Accordingly, they can feel the relevance in both performance and emot ion. These advantage associations are hard to compete. Also, MINI got benefit from the combination of two legacy advantages; British heritage and BMWs German heritage that effected to customer perception. The former British heritage included construction in England, iconic scheme, fun and sporty sensation. The later German heritage BMWs consisted of the certifying in excellence of production and technology along with the premium car segment. Moreover, the company can really deliver favor attributes and benefits, in the other words, MINI could sent the promise unique joy at an attainable price to its consumers. The product design and its marketing campaign supported the desired associations. Their unique, specific and complete forms of advertising resulted to minis repositioning accomplishment. The customer was underlined that possessing and driving a MINI is fun, at the same time, also promoting brand personality and the idea of smaller is better. In every touch points, from the bil lboards to the showrooms, everything is branded that pararell with the set position. Finally, associations of MINI brand are strong in differentiate about history related, product related, and emotional related that can claim distinctiveness and superiority against relevant competitors. Whilst MINI brand repositioning has been very successful, Oldsmobile brand, contrastingly, had left customers confused. The Oldsmobile brand is a case of the failure brand in repositioning. Oldsmobile is one of the brand legends in US car history. It was in the portfolio of General Motors (GM) same as Chevrolet, Pontiac, Buick and Cadillac. It was a pioneer brand that launched the first car with chromeplated Trim and front wheel drive. Also, it was be the first production line car in the US with a fully automatic transmission, which is Toronado model. The brand was popular for many decades until there were problems that shake the strength of brand and have to end the production in 2000. The reason behind the brand failure can be divided in terms of positioning in three parts. First of all, around 1980s onwards, when GMs technology had cutting edge begin with the Chevrolet engines were substituted ad diesel engines were given as an option, it ,afterward, stopped maintaining and emphasizing the unique selling proposition of Oldsmobile and make the brand to be uniform like others. Consequently, Oldsmobiles is devalued its positioning in advance automobile in sportiness and innovation .It lost its advantage edge and looked very similar to other GM cars, with only small differences. Additionally, due to its brand name, there is an effect of the name old to the perception of customer that mislead to be perceived as outdates brand specially among teenage segment. As a result, marketers of Oldsmobile tried to reposition the brand and adjust the brand image with Its Not Your Fathers Oldsmobile slogan and ran advertising to describing the point. Unfortunately, this customers couldnt recognize reasonable about age association and still perceive that Oldsmobile is old-fashioned (Levinson,2005). One Brand Week article, published in February 2001 gave a recommendation to the Oldsmobile that instead of attempt to be younger, it should better accept the exist brand, with its older profile, search for older customers insight and give them a communication that fascinated to their needs. It could be possible, as the Oldsmobile had been considered an innovator in its field, even though it had never been a youth brand. Also, the process of this repositioning was rather impulsiv e operation. The customer perception should proceeding adjust for example, from old brand to adult brand to, eventually, younger brand. Moreover, Oldsmobile had endeavoured to lift its position to be a luxury brand by changing logo and make many product variations to enter European market. However, the principal notion of Oldsmobile was to manufacture a low-priced car for the masses and discounting strategy to sales was still used that against the repositioning aim, thus, consumers were confounded. Again, their memories with the earlier brand image still ran deep. Ultimately, General Mortors shut down its Oldsmobile section. Refer to the case, there are many factors that make Oldsmobile incapable to success in repositioning. Begins with the target market, it attempted to target younger consumers and affluent market without finding those customers insight. While there were overwhelm of competitors that pierced in the same target. Thus, introducing trendy new Olds cars were too late. Oldsmobile did not carry on the brands new promise; it just created the tag line Its Not Your Fathers Oldsmobile but did not do anything on product or service programs to stress the claim. The product reforms did not meet wishes of new clients. By reason of deficient product development plus inconsistent brand communications, it did not have power enough to change the targets perception that Oldsmobile is a youthful, modern brand. Sharfman(2001) states that this slogan excluded both newer and elder purchasers. The reason that might be it had not done enough through its designs, contemporary images, and marketing mix, especiall y to the customers who do not have high involvement in the brand. They saw no advantage and no distinction, and no emotive association. In addition, it abandoned their competitive advantages which are a sporty and innovative, based on its heritage. Consequently, the trusted and believable personality of Oldsmobile was destroyed. In addition, to be in the upper market, Oldsmobile did not do well on credibility. Price levels did not represent the new willing position. Also, it was not able to form a unique emotional advantage or identity component of brand equity that is related to its customers. For these reasons Oldsmobile turned people off. In a nut shell, brand positioning is a strategic concept that marketers make a band image to sit in a unique room in the mind of the target market by a customer-focused base value correlated to competitors. Furthermore,There are factors require brand managers to reconsider about their brand position such as altering customer needs, increasing competitive pressures and changing of the company own structure. The BMW MINI case shows an example of how a brand cans success in repositioning. It created effective brand associations that consumers perceive a brand dwell in a favourable, differentiated and credible location in the minds of consumers. Thus, MINI gained trustworthiness of the product position by information given by brand. Although many brands are desired to become resurrected and famous again, often, repositioning brand fail in changing the image in the mind of customer as the mentioned case of Oldsmobile. It underwent from a lack of strong positioning since targeted goal that it did not have ability to send the promises or new benefits. Also, elements of marketing mix did not go along with new position such as the product improvement and the price. As a result, marketers should carefully redefine brands target market, stick on their needs and expectations, then, find the right and available place to be in their minds, which unique, certifiable, and satisfactory. Finally, the new position should be communicated properly and consistency.